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Applying the ICJ Advisory Opinion in the Climate Negotiations
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued its landmark advisory opinion on climate change in July2025 (the AO), following a request by the UN General Assembly to clarify States’ legal duties to
The Global Goal on Adaptation
Our GGA explainer covers the global goal on adaptation: the UAE Framework and its targets, the 59 Belém Adaptation Indicators, the processes that follow, and how the GGA links to reporting and the global stocktake.
Governance and Process: Decision-Making in the UNFCC
The first in our Governance and Process series: how decisions are made in the UNFCCC, from the governing and subsidiary bodies, Presidency and Bureau to agenda adoption, consensus and the path to a COP decision.
Just Transition
Our just transition explainer covers how the concept evolved in the UNFCCC, how the Just Transition Work Programme works, the new just transition mechanism, and how just transition links to mitigation, finance and adaptation.
COP Reform
Our COP reform explainer covers why the UN climate process is under pressure, key procedural disputes since Copenhagen, the main reform challenges, how reform is discussed under AIM, and LRI’s own proposals.
Mitigation: The Mitigation Work Programme
Our mitigation explainer covers the science, the treaty framework and the Mitigation Work Programme (MWP): how it works, what divides Parties, and how mitigation links to the global stocktake, the IPCC and the CBD.
SB 64 Summary
From the 8th to 18th of June, the 64th session of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Subsidiary Bodies (SBs) took place in Bonn, Germany. The conference officially included:
Legislating for Climate Adaptation
This report draws on a workshop held on Legal Approaches to Climate Adaptation, organised by SOAS, University of London, United Nations University Bonn, and LRI in 2024. The Workshop brought together researchers,
Operationalisation of the Belém Action Mechanism
As Parties discuss the operationalisation of the Just Transition Mechanism, or Belém Action Mechanism, this advice considers the relationship between the JTWP and the Mechanism and how the latter could be operationalised as a constituted body under the CMA.
The Kyoto Protocol today
The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and is still in force although its second commitment period that establishes binding reduction targets to developed country Parties expired in 2020 and no third commitment period was negotiated. This advice considers the remaining role of the Kyoto Protocol today.
Marine carbon dioxide removal technologies and Article 6
This advice considers marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR) technologies, which comprises ocean-based techniques that remove CO₂ from the atmosphere and store it for extended periods (e.g. ocean alkalinity enhancement, ocean fertilisation, seaweed cultivation and blue carbon ecosystem restoration) and how Article 6 may allow for mCDR to create tradeable emissions units.
Possible outcomes from a COP
This advice outlines the different outcomes a COP can lead to. In doing so, it considers their legal value. The advice has been updated to take into consideration the advisory opinion on climate change delivered by the International Court of Justice.