If and to what extent does the process of submitting Intended Nationally Determined Contributions that reflect states’ voluntary efforts to address climate change conflict with the science-based approach under public international law? Summary: The science-based approach under the UNFCCC does not affect the validity or political relevance of voluntary …

What is the meaning of additionality under the Framework Convention and the Kyoto Protocol? Advice: Additionality refers to two areas of the negotiations: the additionality of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reductions, and the additionality of financial contributions of developed countries in respect of mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation additionality …

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1. Are there examples of international agreements that “meld not legally binding at the international level with an approach that emphasizes the importance of the domestic measures and the legal force that they have at the domestic level (e.g., laws, regulations, etc.)” and what has the resulting system looked like? Could examples be of …

What types of ratcheting-up mechanisms exist and how could they be implemented in the context of a 2015 agreement? Could you provide examples from existing legal regimes and legal architectures?  Summary: Ratcheting-up provisions are included in the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer and the Minamata Convention and, to some …